Santhal Tribe
The Santhal Tribe is the largest tribal community of Jharkhand in terms of population and is also one of the major tribes of India. They mainly reside in the Santhal Pargana division, Dhanbad, Bokaro, Giridih, Hazaribagh, Chatra, Koderma, East Singhbhum and West Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand. From a racial perspective, they are placed in the Proto-Astaloid category. Their own language is Santhali and their traditional script is Ol Chiki. The Santhal society is divided into 12 gotras—Murmu, Hansda, Soren, Hembram, Kisku, Baskey, Besra, Poria, Toodu, Genduar, Chode and Marandi.
Origin and Settlement
The Santhals are believed to have lived in Bengal for a long period before coming to present-day Jharkhand. In Bengal, they were known as ‘Saotar’. When the British entered the region in 1765 AD, the native Pahadia community resisted British subjugation. The resulting conflict between the Pahadias and Santhals led to changes in settlement arrangements. In 1832–33, the British established the Damin-e-Koh zone by demarcating an area of about 1338 square miles. This area was reserved for Santhal settlement. The Santhals adopted the Manjhi system from the Sauria Pahadia tribe, whose political life was considered highly democratic.
Santhal Village and Manjhithan
The Santhal village is a well-organized social unit. In the middle of the village there is Manjhithan, where the Manjhi performs worship and where the village Panchayat also frequently meets. Manjhithan is considered the place of residence of Manjhi Hadam Bonga. The house of the village chief is situated near Manjhithan. Another important sacred place is Zaheer Than, generally located among groups of Sakhuwa or Mahua trees, where other major Santhal deities reside near Zaheer Era. The supreme deity of the Santhals is Marang Buru, who is also known as Thakurjee.
Manjhi
Manjhi is the administrative and judicial head of the Santhal village and also the chairman of the village Panchayat. He manages the affairs of the village, settles disputes and exercises administrative and judicial powers. He convenes the Gram Sabha to settle village quarrels, collects rent and gives permission for establishing marriage relationships. He deals with different kinds of disputes among villagers and plays the central role in village administration. In his absence, his duties can be performed by the concerned assistant.
Nayake
Nayake is the religious head of the village. He performs worship and religious ceremonies and has an important role in village festivals and traditional rituals. Thus, while Manjhi is mainly responsible for administrative and judicial matters, Nayake performs the principal religious functions of the Santhal village.
Pramanik
Pramanik is the deputy head of the village and assists Manjhi in village administration. He also monitors the conduct of the people. When Manjhi is absent, Pramanik may perform his duties. He therefore acts as an important supporting authority in the traditional village administration.
Jog Manjhi
Jog Manjhi is an important assistant of Manjhi who keeps an eye on the conduct of people in the society and helps in resolving marital problems. He is also regarded as the head of Santhal youth. His advice is considered important in matters related to social conduct, birth and marriage. In certain traditional situations, his role is considered significant in maintaining social discipline.
Godait
Godait acts as the messenger of the village. He collects and communicates information relating to the people of Santhal society to higher officials. He also informs villagers and asks them to gather at a particular place for the Gram Sabha, village meetings or festivals according to the instructions of Manjhi.
Village Panchayat and Justice
The Gram Panchayat deals with various village matters, including land and property disputes, divorce, mutual disputes, social issues and other cases. Manjhi handles ordinary village matters, while very serious offences such as murder require government intervention. Senior members of the community, known as Bhagdo Praja, participate in discussions while deciding disputes. Punishments may be financial, social or physical, depending on the nature and seriousness of the offence.
Deshmanjhi
A group of about 5–8 villages comes under a Deshmanjhi. Matters that cannot be settled at the village level by Manjhi may be referred to Deshmanjhi for decision. Thus, Deshmanjhi acts as an intermediate traditional authority between the individual village and the larger Pargana organization.
Pargana and Parganit
A Pargana is formed by combining approximately 15–20 villages and is headed by a Parganit. It is an important and higher traditional administrative and judicial institution of Santhal society. It settles disputes arising between different villages and decides matters that remain unresolved at the lower levels of the traditional administration. Deshmanjhi or Manjhi may send unresolved matters to Parganit. Parganit also has the traditional authority to deal with Bitlaha cases.
Wider Traditional Organization
The traditional organization of Santhal society also included wider territorial authorities. The source mentions Sardar, Nayak and Manjhi as recognized positions during British rule. A wider area could include approximately 70–80 villages, while the traditional organization also referred to groups of 15–20 villages and 5–8 villages at different administrative levels. During British rule, these traditional authorities were recognized and were provided monthly stipends.
Social Organization and Family
The family is the first social unit of Santhal society. Santhals traditionally emphasize collective social life and community discipline. Their society is divided into different gotras, and there is strong respect for gotra identity. Consanguineous marriage is regarded as a serious offence. There is a strong traditional belief in gotra symbols, and it is prohibited to kill, destroy or eat anything associated with one's gotra sign.
Marriage System
Several traditional forms of marriage are practised among the Santhals, including Kering Bapla, Kiring Jabai, Itul Nirbolok, Tunki Dipil Bapala, Ghar Di Jamai, Seva Vivah and Sanga Vivah. Kering Bapla is described as the most popular form of marriage. The bride-price given to the girl by the groom's side is called ‘Pone’. Marriage relationships require the traditional approval of the concerned village authority.
Economic Life
Agriculture is the main basis of Santhal livelihood, and paddy is their principal crop. Rice is their staple food, while Pochai, a rice-based traditional drink, is a favourite drink. Their economic life has traditionally been closely connected with agriculture, land and nature. Their food is generally simple, and their livelihood has historically depended heavily on agricultural activities.
Festivals and Cultural Practices
The major festivals of the Santhals include Baha or Ba, Sohrai, Karam, Bandhana, Erok, Maghasim and Hariharasim. Most of these festivals are connected with agriculture and nature. Tattooing is prevalent in Santhal society. Traditional cultural and religious practices remain closely connected with their community life and natural surroundings.
Social Discipline and Punishment
Santhal society has traditionally provided economic, social and physical punishments for violations of community rules. Minor offences may result in penalties such as arranging a community feast. The guilty person may have to apologize before the society and fulfil the prescribed requirements before being accepted again into the community. Traditional institutions therefore function not only as administrative bodies but also as mechanisms for maintaining social discipline.
Bitlaha
The most severe traditional punishment is Bitlaha or Vitalaha, meaning social boycott. It has traditionally been imposed for serious offences such as consanguineous marriage, prohibited caste marriage, non-tribal sexual relations and other serious offences. Under Bitlaha, the person could be completely excluded, humiliated and separated from village society. In some cases, the punishment could later be removed through apology and a prescribed community feast.
Sexual Offences and Social Regulation
Traditional Santhal Panchayats also dealt with sexual and marital offences. If a virgin girl became pregnant, Jog Manjhi was informed first and a Panchayat meeting was held. If the girl identified the father of the child and the charge was proved, the man was required to adopt the girl. If the father’s identity was not disclosed, the girl's family had to provide rice, pulses, Khasi and other items for rituals and a community feast as part of the traditional process of removing the blame and sanctifying the village. When the child was born, it was traditionally named after the tribe of Jog Manjhi.
Marriage and Religious Disputes
In matters concerning marriage, Jog Manjhi gives the decision, while in religious offences the Nayake gives the decision. Traditional authorities therefore have separate responsibilities according to the nature of the matter. Social, marital and religious issues are handled through the appropriate traditional functionary.
Traditional Institutions During British Rule
The traditional Santhal institutions continued to function during the British period. Manjhi, Nayak and Sardar were recognized by the British administration and were provided monthly stipends. These institutions helped maintain the traditional political and social organization of the Santhal community and continued to exercise authority over village and inter-village matters.
Present Status of the Manjhi System
After the establishment of government Panchayats, the formal power of traditional Panchayats declined. However, the traditional institutions have continued to work alongside the modern Panchayati Raj system in many areas. Pargana and other traditional institutions still deal with several social, marital and community-related matters, while serious criminal cases such as murder require government intervention. Santhal society continues to recognize collective life, traditional customs, community discipline and traditional institutions as important parts of its social organization.
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